Corruption and Bribery in Ancient Egypt: The Amennakht-Paneb Dispute In The Papyrus Salt 124

This is a legal text written in hieratic script (full translation below), with writing on both the front and back of the page. It is known as the Papyrus Salt 124, or Papyrus 10055 in the British Museum. It is an Egyptian papyrus from the early 20th dynasty. It gives us a glimpse of what life was like in the village known as Deir el-Medina(ca. 1550–1080 BCE) home to artisans who worked on the tombs in the Valley of the Kings. This papyrus also provides information about the judicial system and possible instances of corruption in the village and other similar communities of the period inhabited by workers.

The text describes a complaint made by a person named Amennakht to the Vizier about the behavior of another person named Paneb. What had Paneb done? First we need to look at the context.

Image: Wikicommons Djehouty

Amennakht (the writer of this papyrus) says he’s a worker & the son of a former chief-worker named Nebnefer. When Nebnefer died, Amennakht’s brother Neferhotep became the new chief-worker but was killed by an enemy. It’s unclear if the enemy was from outside the country or from a domestic army during a time of political turmoil. Amennakht believed he deserved to be the chief-worker but the vizier, Preemhab, gave the job to Paneb. Now, Amennakht didn’t think Paneb deserved the job & listed some accusations against him to show why he should be removed.

These included: Bribery, adultery, sexual assault, theft, misuse of labour, & violence. Pretty serious charge sheet. But can we trust it?

Well, yes & no. What we are seeing here is that the Egyptians were humans just like us. Amennakht had an axe to grind. He thought he should have Paneb’s job. So he had reasons to make Paneb look bad, but some of his claims are supported by evidence. For example, there are records from the time of King Siptah showing that Paneb made his workers do personal tasks like making a bed & feeding his ox, which delayed their work, this is a form of embezzlement. However, this evidence doesn’t necessarily prove that Amennakht should be the chief workman. Some argue that Paneb was like a son to Neferhotep, who didn’t have children, and that he was adopted into the family. Paneb even inherited Neferhotep’s property, which he used to bribe the vizier. This suggests that Paneb was seen as part of the family and not just an employee.

We don’t know if it achieved its desired affect. Although we don’t have any proof that the vizier received this letter, we do know from a trial with 1 of Paneb’s descendants that Paneb was later accused of stealing stones from a tomb worksite when the vizier was Hori.

The Revised Translation By Aaron Watson 2023 after Jaroslav Černy

(Amennakht speaking) I am the son of the workmen’s chief Nebnufer. My father died, and my brother, Neferhotep, was appointed as his replacement. And the enemy killed Neferhotep [and, despite the fact that I am (?) his brother, Peneb gave five of my father’s servants to Preemhab, who was then Vizier…… [and he put him in the place of (?) my father, despite the fact that it was not his place. And when all the kings were buried, [I reported…??]

The Papyrus Salt 124 (Front) —

Peneb’s theft of King Sety Merenptah’s possessions. The list of them is as follows:……storehouses of King Sety Merenptah discovered in his possession after his burial……and he took away the covering (?) of his chariot. They severed the hand of…… the scribe, despite the fact that he took it at the burial. […… the five……] doors. And they found four (of them), but he took one away. He has it in his possession.

…… [And he stole] the incense of the Necropolis’ ennead of gods, which he divided among himself and his companions. 

……of Pharaoh’s inb-oil, and he took away his wines and sat [on Pharaoh’s sarcophagus(?)] despite the fact that he was buried. 

……[one]’1 statue of the Lord with the name Sety Merenptah on it, and they removed themselves and were seen. 

…..in(?) Hathor’s temple, and the scribe Kenherkhepeshef confirmed what he had done in Ptah’s temple, and Peneb…… [chief-work] man Neferhotep. And he hacked up the ground that is sealed in the hidden Place.

[However, he took the oath] sejefah ter, saying, “I did not disturb a stone in the vicinity of the Place of Pharaoh”; so he said. 

[Charge regarding his] going to three(?) tombs(?) and stretching his legs, despite the fact that they(?) were not his. He was with the labourer Kenna…… [and] Peneb gave something to the [scribe] Kenherkhepeshef, who took it. 

[Charge regarding his robbing (?) Yeyemw]aw of her garment and throwing her on top of the wall and violating (?) her. 

[Charge of] venting his rage (??) on the workman Nebnufer, son of Pennub, saying: Bring lamps…… going with…… fishermen. And he

Charge in this regard: Peneb had sex with Tuy when she was married to the workman Kenna, he had sex with Hunro when she was with Pendua, and he had sex with Hunro when she was with Hesysenebef; so said his son. After having sex with Hunro, he had sex with Webkhet, her daughter, and Apahte, his son, had sex with Webkhet as well.

Charge regarding his ordering of workmen to cut stones on top of Sety Merenptah’s work. They brought them to his tomb every day, and he used them to build four columns in his tomb. 

And he plundered Pharaoh’s Tomb. People passing through the desert saw the stone-cutters while they were standing on top of Pharaoh’s work, and they heard voices. And he took Pharaoh’s pickaxes and hoe for the work in his tomb. 

Apahte, Kasa, Kasa, son of Ramose, Haremuia, IKenherkhepeshef, Rome, Pashed, son of Hah, Nebnakht, Nakhtmin, Nebsmen, Haremuia, son of Beky (Khons, Nakhtmin, Piom, Wenniifer, Anakht, total 16). 

Charged with stealing the work’s large chisel and breaking it in his tomb. 

Charge regarding his pursuit of the chief-worker Neferhotep, my brother, despite the fact that he raised him. And he shut his doors before him, and he took a stone and broke them. And they stationed men to keep an eye on Neferhotep because he said, “I will kill him in the night,” and he beat nine men that night. 

And the chief-worker Neferhotep brought a complaint against him to Amenmose, who punished him. And he brought before Mose a plai Vizier, and he had him dismissed from the office of Vizier chastised me. 

Charged with ordering the workmen to work on the plaited bed of the deputy of Amun’s temple while their wives wove clothes for him. And he made Nebnufer, son of Wazmose, his ox feeder for two months. 

Charge concerning his saying to the chief-workman Hay: I will attack you on the desert and kill you. 

(22) Charge against his……………, which was among them(?). [And he]

Verso, page 1. cursed a tomb with a stele west of the Royal Necropolis. He entered the tomb of the workman Nakhtmin and stole the bed that was beneath him. He stole the objects that one would give to a deceased person.

The Papyrus Salt 124 (Back) —

Charge stemming from his continued beating of workers at a night party. And he climbed the walls and threw bricks at the people. 

The Lord charged him with taking an oath, saying, “If I cause the Vizier to hear my name again, he will be dismissed from his office, but I shall become (again) stone-cutter,” he said. He (i.e., the Vizier) steals and does not leave (anything) in the Royal Necropolis, his son said. And, as you can see, he would never stop blustering. 

Charge for stealing a large pick-axe used for stone splitting. And when they said it wasn’t there, after a month of searching, he brought it and hid it behind a large stone. 

Charged with going to Henutmirer’s funeral and stealing a sr-goose. And he took an oath by the Lord concerning it, saying: It is not in my possession, but they found it in his house. 

Charged with making me swear that I should be kept away from my mother and father’s hnw, saying: I will not enter therein. And he sent the workman Pashed, who began to cry (in) the village, saying: “Let no one look at anyone from the family of the chief-workman Nebnufer when he goes to bring offerings to Amun, their god,” he said. And when the people went to bring offerings [on the] side………they were afraid of him, and he began to throw stones at the village servants48. 

No, but (such behaviour) is unworthy of this office. Oh, he’s doing fine (though he looks like a crazy (?) man). And (yet) it was he who killed those men so that the message could not be delivered to Pharaoh. I have informed the Vizier of his demeanour (of life).