Origin of the koto (and kayagum) musical instrument
- Oct 25, 2010
- 11 min read
Haniwa figurine of a koto player. The koto-like instrument has five strings. 6th century (Tokyo National Museum)
The haniwa tomb figurine of the male koto-player depicted in the photo above is the earliest concrete representation of the ancient musical life of Japan. The figurine was among those found in a 6th century tomb of the Kofun period and the haniwa figurines served as funerary ritual substitutes for the custom of human sacrifices at the death of a leader, and as provisions for the afterlife (these practices were common all over Central Asia in those days).
The archaeological find of the Japanese haniwa zither is of special significance and is the focus here. It is thought to be earliest concrete representation of the wagon, or Yamato-goto, a six-stringed zither with movable bridges found in Japanese Shinto music. It is also possibly the earliest ancient prototype for the Japanese koto which was traditionally thought to have been introduced from China only from the Nara period (A.D. 710-794). With the haniwa koto as evidence, it is probable that the koto may have been introduced much earlier as an instrument for ritual use such as during funeral ceremonies or to summon the spirits in early Shinto-like rituals. There still exists a two-stringed zither called the yakumo-goto which is still played in ensembles in Shinto ceremonies (and a more recent adaptation called the Azuma nigenkin.
The earliest musical traditions of Japan
Primitive fiddles or koto-like instruments that resembled the tonkoriinstrument of the Ainu people are known to have existed during the Jomon period (along with whistles and drums). The musical heritage of the Ainu culture in Japan today has retained the mukkuri, a Jew’s harp (or jaw harp) and tonkori zither with two to five strings.
Musical or ritual hand-bells are known from the Yayoi period.
Singing statues, Kofun period 6th century (Tokyo National Museum)
In the Kofun period, bronze bells (pellet or jingle bells) can be seen attached to costumes of haniwa clay figurines, and some of the statues seem to be of singers. One haniwa depicts a musician playing a barrel drum with a stick, while the above figure is seated with a five-stringed board zither across his lap.
Left: Male Haniwa with Drum, Kofun period, 6th century Center: Dancing Female Haniwa with Handheld Percussion Instrument, Kofun period, 6th century Right: Haniwa Figure with Drum, Kofun period, 6th century (Tokyo National Museum)
The Kaya Kingdom Connection
The haniwatomb pottery of Kofun period is a technology that originates with the peoples of the ancient kingdom of Kaya. Both genetic and archaeological links between Kofun period Japan and the Kaya region have been established. The koto-like zither depicted on the 6th century haniwa is very similar to and may have its prototype in the Korean kayagum. According to Samguksagi, a history of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, the kayagum is supposed to have been developed around the 6th century in the Gaya confederacy by King Gasil (also known as Haji of Daegaya) after he observed an old Chinese instrument, a guzheng. He then ordered a musician named Ureuk to compose music that could be played on the instrument. The kayagum was then further improved by Wu Ruk during the reign of Jinheung in the Silla Dynasty. The ancient kayagum King Gashil was called by several names, including beopgeum, pungnyu. It closely resembles the Japanese koto. (To listen to music being played with this instrument, click on this Youtube link.
However, the Korean kayagum itself may have had its prototype roots in Central Asian (southern Siberian) jadagan (Khakassia) – chadagan (Tuva) – yatga (Mongolian) instruments OR in the Chinese guzheng instrument.
The Chinese guzheng can be traced way back to two other Chinese plucked zithers, the se. The guzheng is one of the most ancient Chinese musical instruments according to the documents written in the Qin dynasty (before 206 BC). The guzheng is considered as one of the main chamber as well as solo instruments of Chinese traditional music. Due to its long history, the zheng has been called guzheng or Gu-Zhengwhere “Gu” stands for “ancient” in Chinese. The earliest record of the guzheng in Shi Ji is attributed to the historian Sima Qian in 91 BC and known to have existed since the Warring States Period beginning around 475 BC gaining popularity the Qin dynasty (221 – 206 BC). Chinese legends of the origin of zither put the dates at 2,600 B.C.
Jadagan or Chatkhan zither of Khakassia
We also need to consider the role of the Silk Road in the proliferation of musical instruments, fiddles and zithers. The earliest koto and kayagum may have originated in an instrument played by the tribes of Central Asia (see traditional instrument of Khakass, music of Khakassia, Tuva, Kazakhstan, Iran), having arrived via the Silk Road. The opening up of regular trade routes with mainland Asia during the late Kofun period brought many new cultural influences and had an impact on artistic developments in Japan, including Buddhism. Despite that the other Chinese instruments that came to Japan originated in Central Asia, the koto is still widely believed to be one of the few musical instruments to be typically of Chinese origin.
One can also not rule out the possibility that the zither might go back even further to a prototype in the West to Greece 2,000 B.C. which might have made its way to Korea and Japan via the Silk Road (variants such as the psaltery were used by ancient Greek and Egyptian cultures since the instruments were highly portable, easily constructed and played). Conversely, the northern European zither family zithers are thought to have come from the psaltery family (plucked) with origins in Persia, or from the Asian zither family via Siberia.
From paintings in an A.D. 357 tomb near An-ag, then a colony of ancient China at that time, a horseback band of the Chinese Han dynasty style is seen with drums and a small bell hit with a hammer. One of the bandmembers appears to be playing the Chinese panpipes. Elsewhere deeper in the tomb, a zither, a lute, and a very long end-blown flute can be seen accompanying a dancer whose long nose and costume. The paintings suggest that Central Asian traditions traveled even as far as Korea by the 4th century.
Burmese zither of the Mon people (National Music Museum)
However, other experts say that the origins of the prominent Asian long zither family, e.g. the koto or the zheng, may be found in the Oceanic tube zither family in Austronesia, i.e. southern China, Island Southeast Asia or . The tube zithers are found from Madagascar (related to those in Borneo), India, to Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Java and Bali, Sumatra and the Philippines.
Idiochord tube zither from Mindanao, Philippines
How the koto evolved
Originally, the Japanese word “koto” referred to all plucked instruments. Over time, the great diversity of stringed instruments that were being introduced required a change of names. The name “koto” came to be reserved for designating the table zither. During the 8th century Nara period, there existed two table zithers in Japan: the gaku-so, with 12 or 13 strings, and the wagon / yamagoto with 6 strings.
Musical developments in the Korean Silla dynasty(668–935) are closely related to those of the Chinese court of the Tang dynasty period so that both the Nara court and the Korea’s court-music traditions tended to reflect those of China. The koto is traditionally said to have been introduced to Japan around the sixth century during the Nara Period (553-794).
In the prototypes of China, there are two types of table zither: one with and one without bridges. The koto is derived from the former instrument.
The earliest koto (yamagoto / wagon) had only five strings and was about three feet long. A sixth string was added in the Nara period (710-794). The 13-stringed Koto modeled on the Chinese zheng, is approximately six feet long. It also dates from the 8th century and could be found in the court music ensembles. (The number of strings on the Chinese guzheng fluctuated with as few as 6 to as many as 23 strings during the Tang dynasty. ) The strings were originally made of silk (but are today of plastic).
Traditionally, the koto was played seated on the floor with the end of the koto either resting in the players lap or on a small stand in front of them. It is played with three ivory picks placed on the right thumb and the first two fingers.
The modern-day koto is made of Paulownia wood, is about six feet long and ten inches wide, and has thirteen strings of equal size and tension. A bridge is placed under each string. Moving the bridge up or down results in an infinite range of tunings. The strings are plucked with plectra worn on the thumb, index and middle fingers of the right hand.Various modifications of sound are made by pressing or pulling the strings with the left hand. In all, there are seventeen different playing techniques for the right hand and eight for the left hand.
The gaku-so was used in the Gagaku Court music. The instrument is played with picks, called tsume, on the thumb, the index and the middle finger. A 2-stringed version, the nigenkin, also exists, as well as a single stringed one, the ichigenkin.
The oldest known Japanese musical form gigaku is said to have been introduced in 612 by the ancient Korean kingdom of Kudara (or Paekche) by Mimashi who introduced it to young nobles in the Yamato court under the sponsorship of Prince Shotoku Taishi (during the Asuka period) who admired all things Chinese. Prince Shotoku, a devoted adherent of Buddhism and the founder of Shitenno-ji temple deemed this Gigaku dance to be an essential part of Buddhist ceremonies thus ordered some boys to learn the dance.
The important role of music in court ceremony can be seen from one of the imperial edicts of the Late Nara Period which was a reading before Empress Gensho and the Princess Imperial who later became Empress Koken (and which was recorded in the Shoku Nihongi (797) ):
“The Sovereign Sage [a reference to Emperor Temmu] whose name is to be spoken with awe, that ruled the Great Land of Many Islands in the Kiyomibara Palace of Asuka, in governing and ordering the Realm, even as a God deemed that to control and soften both high and low, keeping them tranquil and peaceful, it was necessary to have everywhere and always these two things: Ceremony and Music.”
The styles of early court music were influenced by Samhan-Korea, Manchuria and of course, by Tang China. In later times Gigaku was absorbed into Bugaku, which the court dances to with the accompaniment of Gagaku.
The gaku-so was an instrument centrally important to the exclusive Gagaku“Elegant Music” performed by the Imperial court ensemble and the modern 13-string koto is descended from the so or gakuso of Japanese court music. The popularity of Gagaku court music peaked and flourished during the Heian period. The legacy of this music is to be found today at Shitennoh-ji Temple where the Gagaku music and Bugaku Dance are still performed.
A number of new schools of solo Koto developed in the late 15th century. A 17-stringed bass koto which was created at the beginning of the 20th century.
A 13-stringed koto instrument. The koto is the national instrument of Japan
Listen to the playing of the koto here.
By Aileen Kawagoe
References & Sources:
The Koto Society: http://www.kotosociety.org/aboutKoto.html According to the Koto Society, the koto is of Chinese origin and was originally used exclusively by the Imperial Court.
Japan Encyclopedia by Louis Frédéric
Source and stream: early music and living traditions in China, Early Music (1996) XXIV (3): 375-390.doi: 10.1093/earlyj/XXIV.3.375 – The earliest archaeological evidence of the Chinese guqin [a fretless instrument], found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng dating from 433 B.C.. It featured tuning pegs, a bridge and goose-like feet. The guqin is, however, not to be confused with the guzheng, which is a zither also without frets, but which has moveable bridges under each string.
Guzheng – Chinese zither, Chinese Music World website
Musica Asiatica, pp. 3-12
History of Japanese Traditional Music. In the early period, the masked drama called Gigaku entered Japan, but now only exists in the form of masks preserved in the Shosoin. The Nara period and Heian period are dominated by Gagaku imperial court dance and Shomyo Buddhist chanting. In addition, preserved within the current repertory of Gagaku there are other native forms of song like Saibara and Roei and there is also the popular song form called Imayo. Gagaku consists primarily of music by wind and string instruments accompanied by percussion. Some of the instruments like koto and biwa and the drums are related to instruments used in other genres, but others, like the nasal hichiriki and the harmonica-like sho are only used in Gagaku and are a part of its distinctive sound. Many of the pieces include dance and when the dance is emphasized, it is called Bugaku, (“Bu” meaning, “dance”). The pieces of Gagaku are divided into two groups, To-gaku or pieces from Tang China and Rimpa-gaku or pieces from the region that is now the southern part of the Vietnam peninsula are called “pieces of the left”. And pieces from the three ancient countries of Korea and Pohai-gaku are called “pieces of the right”. The instrumentation and forms of these two groups of pieces are also different and originally they were performed by different groups of musicians that also enter the stage from different directions.
The musical tradition of Japan shares the same ideology and philosophy as that found in Central Asia:
“The Musical Instrument is accorded the highest category of the universe in the musical myths and legends, which are a part and parcel of the traditional religious system. The Musical Instrument is considered to be the creator and the bearer of cosmic order, and the conductive medium of immaculate powers that harmoniously unify Cosmos, Nature and Man.”
As the koto-like instruments (along with drums and bells) were played by shamanic mikogura or shrine priestesses, musical instruments were likely imbued with the same ancient sacral meaning, and with magical and supernatural power that was found in shamanic societies of Siberia and Altaic regions of Central Asia. During shamanic rites in many nomadic societies, musical instruments were perceived to be vehicles that turned into fast horses on which the shaman rode on their journeys to whatever place of the Higher, Middle and Lower Worlds inhabited by people and spirits, both good and evil.
Musical Folk Art: The Zither, The Epoch Times
Zithers, Psalteries, Dulcimers, World Instrument Gallery
The musical instruments of the Scythians, The World of the Scythians by Renate Rolle p. 95
Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments by William P. Malm
Traditional instruments – Khakass people – The Jadagan or Chatkhan is a wooden board zither of the Khakass people, usually with 6 or 7 strings stretched across movable bridges, The instrument was considered to be sacrosanct and used to accompany lyrical, historical and epic songs and heroic tales. The instrument was mainly used at court and in monasteries, since strings symbolised the twelve levels of the palace hierarchy. Related instruments include the Tuvan chadagan, the Mongolian yatga, the Japanese koto, the Chinese zheng and the Korean kayagum.
Tuva-online: Fundamental Research on Musical Culture of Tuva in the 20th century Ready for Publishing – The majority of Tuvan instruments are stringed instruments, i.e., chadagan, igil, byzaanchy, doshpuluur, and chanzy. but aerophones and idiophones are also prominent in this group of developed instruments existing in stable forms. For example, shoor (end-blown flute) limbi (side-blown flute), demir-xomus (metal jew’s harp) and kuluzun xomus (bamboo jew’s harp) belong to this group (the metal jew’s harp was also formerly used in the ritual practice of shamans). These instruments are considered by the Tuvans as natively Tuva, despite the etymology of their names, their construction, and the non-native materials from which some are made (e.g., byzaanchy, chanzy, limbi). These factors suggest that such musical instruments were brought to Tuva long ago, and are evidence of the Tuvans’ historical and ethnocultural connections to other peoples in Inner Asia. As far as instruments, instrumental music, and xöömei are concerned, Tuva itself represents a completely original epicenter of drone-overtone music, clearly distinguished from Central Asian types of sound culture.
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